Journal of Boredom Studies

No. 3 (2025)
Articles

Finding Something for Yourself: Exploring Boredom Through the Lens of Identity Development

PDF HTML
  • Gadi On
Gadi On
Open University of Israel

Published 2025-04-09

Keywords

  • boredom,
  • exploration,
  • Youth,
  • meaning,
  • identity development,
  • identity exploration
    • ...More
    Less

How to Cite

On, G. (2025). Finding Something for Yourself: Exploring Boredom Through the Lens of Identity Development. Journal of Boredom Studies, (3). Retrieved from https://www.boredomsociety.com/jbs/index.php/journal/article/view/35

Copyright (c) 2025 Gadi On

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Abstract

Boredom is a complex human experience understood through psychodynamic, arousal, cognitive, and existential perspectives. Despite significant contributions from these perspectives, this paper highlights two key challenges to understanding boredom: the depth of boredom – whether it is a minor or significant aspect of human experience – and the role of personal meaning in theories of boredom. I propose an initial framework for understanding boredom by integrating insights from different theoretical traditions, particularly in relation to identity development. Drawing on the work of Erik Erikson and Ruthellen Josselson, I explore how boredom connects to the experience of Holding and how identity concern and exploration contribute to this phenomenon. I illustrate this framework with examples from in-depth interviews with adolescents and young adults, analyzing their experiences of boredom through life narratives. The paper also offers new insights into the long-term tendency of individuals to experience boredom – i.e., trait boredom.

PDF HTML

References

  1. Bartone, P. T. (2005). The Need for Positive Meaning in Military Operations: Reflections on Abu Ghraib. Military Psychology, 17(4), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327876mp1704_5
  2. Bargdill, R. W. (2014). Toward a Theory of Habitual Boredom. Janus Head, 13(2), 93–111. https://doi.org/10.5840/jh201413219
  3. Bargdill, R. W. (2000). The Study of Life Voredom. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 31(2), 188–219. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691620051090979
  4. Belton, T., and Priyadharshini, E. (2007). Boredom and Schooling: A Cross Disciplinary Exploration. Cambridge Journal of Education, 37(4), 579–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057640701706227
  5. Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity. In Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity (pp. 163–227). McGraw-Hill.
  6. Braun, V., and Clarke, V. (2006). Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  7. Caldwell, L. L., Darling, N., Payne, L. L., and Dowdy, B. (1999). "Why Are You Bored?": An Examination of Psychological and Social Control Causes of Boredom Among Adolescents. Journal of Leisure Research, 31(2), 103–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1999.11949853
  8. Chan, C. S., Van Tilburg, W. A. P., Igou, E. R., Poon, C. Y. S., Tam, K. Y. Y., Wong, V. U. T., and Cheung, S. K. (2018). Situational Meaninglessness and State Boredom: Cross-sectional and Experience-sampling Findings. Motivation and Emotion, 42(4), 555–565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9693-3
  9. Chin, A., Markey, A., Bhargava, S., Kassam, K. S., and Loewenstein, G. (2016). Bored in the USA: Experience Sampling and Boredom in Everyday Life. Emotion, 17(2), 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000232
  10. Conroy, R. M., Golden, J., Jeffares, I., O’Neill, D., and Mcgee, H. (2010). Boredom-proneness, Loneliness, Social Engagement and Depression and Their Association with Cognitive Function in Older People – A Population Study. Psychology, Health and Medicine, 15(4), 463–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2010.487103
  11. Creswell, J. W., and Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. SAGE.
  12. Damon, W., Menon, J., and Bronk, K. C. (2003). The Development of Purpose During Adolescence. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0703_2
  13. Damrad-Frye, R., and Laird, J. D. (1989). The Experience of Boredom: The Role of the Self-perception of Attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(2), 315–320. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.57.2.315
  14. Eastwood, J. D., Frischen, A., Fenske, M. J., and Smilek, D. (2012). The Unengaged Mind: Defining Boredom in Terms of Attention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 482–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612456044
  15. Eastwood, J. D., and Gorelik, D. (2019). Boredom Is a Feeling of Thinking and a Double-edged Sword. In J. Ros Velasco (Eds.), Boredom Is in Your Mind (pp. 55–70). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26395-9_7
  16. Elpidorou, A. (2022). Boredom and Cognitive Engagement: A Functional Theory of Boredom. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 14(3), 959–988. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-021-00599-6
  17. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. W. W. Norton.
  18. Fahlman, S. A., Mercer, K. B., Gaskovsky, P., Eastwood, A. E., and Eastwood, J. D. (2009). Does a Lack of Life Meaning Cause Boredom? Results from Psychometric, Longitudinal, and Experimental Analyses. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(3), 307–340. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.3.307
  19. Fenichel, O. (1953). On the Psychology of Boredom. In The Collected Papers of Otto Fenichel (pp. 292–302). W.W. Norton.
  20. Finkielsztein, M. (2021). Boredom and Academic Work. Routledge.
  21. Fisher, C. D. (1993). Boredom at Work: A Neglected Concept. Human Relations, 46(3), 395–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679304600305
  22. Flum, H., and Kaplan, A. (2006). Exploratory Orientation as an Educational Goal. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 99–110. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_3
  23. Frankl, V. E. (1959). Man’s Search for Meaning. Beacon Press.
  24. Frankl, V. E. (2014). The Will to Meaning: Foundations and Applications of Logotherapy. Penguin.
  25. Game, A. M. (2007). Workplace Boredom Coping: Health, Safety, and HR Implications. Personnel Review, 36(5), 701–772. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480710774007
  26. Gana, K., Broc, G., and Bailly, N. (2019). Does the Boredom Proneness Scale Capture Traitness of Boredom? Results from a Six-year Longitudinal Trait-state-occasion Model. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.030
  27. Geiwitz, P. J. (1966). Structure of Boredom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(5), 592–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023202
  28. Greenson, R. (1953). On Boredom. Journal of the American Psychoanalytical Association, 1(1), 7–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/000306515300100102
  29. Grotevant, H. D. (1987). Toward a Process Model of Identity Formation. Journal of Adolescent Research, 2(3), 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355488723003
  30. Hamilton, J. (1981). Attention, Personality, and the Self-regulation of Mood: Absorbing Interest and Boredom. Progress in Experimental Personality Research, 10, 281–315.
  31. Harasymchuk, C., and Fehr, B. (2010). A Script Analysis of Relational Boredom: Causes, Feelings, and Coping Strategies. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(9), 988–1019. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.9.988
  32. Harasymchuk, C., and Fehr, B. (2013). A Prototype Analysis of Relational Boredom. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30(5), 627–646. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407512464483
  33. Harris, M. B. (2000). Correlates and Characteristics of Boredom Proneness and Boredom. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(3), 576–598. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02497.x
  34. Hebb, D. O. (1955). Drives and the CNS (Conceptual Nervous System). Psychological Review, 62(4), 243–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0041823
  35. Heintzelman, S. J., and King, L. A. (2018). Routines and Meaning in Life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218795133
  36. Hill, A.B. (1975). Work Variety and Individual Differences in Occupational Boredom. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(1), 128–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076346
  37. Hill, A.B., and Perkins, R.E. (1985). Towards a Model of Boredom. British Journal of Psychology, 76(2), 235–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076346
  38. Hunter, A., and Eastwood, J. D. (2016). Does State Boredom Cause Failures of Attention? Examining the Relations Between Trait Boredom, State Boredom, and Sustained Attention. Experimental Brain Research, 234(8), 2413–2422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-016-4749-7
  39. Josselson, R. (1996). The Space Between Us. SAGE.
  40. Josselson, R. (2011). Narrative Research and the Challenge of Accumulating Knowledge. APA Books.
  41. Kass, S. J., Vodanovich, S. J., and Callender, A. (2001) State-trait Boredom: Relationship to Absenteeism, Tenure, and Job Satisfaction. Journal of Business and Psychology, 16, 317–327. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011121503118
  42. Kenah, K., Bernhardt, J., Cumming, T., Spratt, N., Luker, J., and Janssen, H. (2017). Boredom in Patients with Acquired Brain Injuries During Inpatient Rehabilitation: A Scoping Review. Disability and Rehabilitation, 40(22), 2713–2722. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2017.1354232
  43. Kirova, A. (2004). Lonely or Bored: Children’s Lived Experiences Reveal the Difference. Interchange, 35(2), 243–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02698852
  44. Klapp, O. E. (1986). Overload and Boredom. Greenwood Press.
  45. Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R., and Zilber, T. (1998). Narrative Research: Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation. SAGE.
  46. Lomas, T. (2017). A Meditation on Boredom: Re-appraising Its Value Through Introspective Phenomenology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 14(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2016.1205695
  47. Loukidou, L., Loan-Clarke, J., and Daniels, K. (2009). Boredom in the Workplace: More than Monotonous Tasks. International Journal of Management Reviews, 11(4), 381–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00267.x
  48. Mail, M. P. (2022). Loneliness and Boredom in Residential Care: Voices of Older Adults. Aotearoa New Zealand Social Work, 34(1), 88–99. https://doi.org/10.11157/anzswj-vol34iss1id846
  49. Martin, M., Sadlo, G., and Stew, G. (2006). The Phenomenon of Boredom. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(3), 193–211. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qrp066oa
  50. Masland, S. R., Shah, T. V., and Choi-Kain, L. W. (2020). Boredom in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Lost Criterion Reconsidered. Psychopathology, 53(4), 239–253. https://doi.org/10.1159/000511312
  51. Melton, A. M. A., and Schulenberg, S. E. (2009). A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Boredom Proneness Scale. The Journal of Psychology, 143(5), 493–508. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8503_05
  52. Mikulas, W. L., and Vodanovich, S. J. (1993). The Essence of Boredom. The Psychological Record, 43(1), 3–12.
  53. Moynihan, A. B., Igou, E. R., and Van Tilburg, W. A. (2020). Existential Escape of the Bored: A Review of Meaning-regulation Processes under Boredom. European Review of Social Psychology, 32(1), 161–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2020.1829347
  54. O’Dea, M. K., Igou, E. R., Van Tilburg, W. A., and Kinsella, E. L. (2022). Self-compassion Predicts Less Boredom: The Role of Meaning in Life. Personality and Individual Differences, 186(111360). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111360
  55. O’Hanlon, J. F. (1981). Boredom: Practical Consequences and a Theory. Acta Psychologica, 49(1), 53–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(81)90033-0
  56. Phillips, A. (1993). On Being Bored. In On Kissing, Tickling, and Being Bored. Psychoanalytic Essays on the Unexamined Life (pp. 68–78). Harvard University Press.
  57. Raffaelli, Q., Mills, C., and Christoff, K. (2017). The Knowns and Unknowns of Boredom: A Review of the Literature. Experimental Brain Research, 236(9), 2451–2462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-017-4922-7
  58. Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences. SAGE.
  59. Scerbo, M. W. (1998). What’s So Boring about Vigilance. In R. R. Hoffman, M. F. Sherrick, and J. S. Warm (Eds.), Viewing Psychology as a Whole: The Integrative Science of William N. Dember (pp. 145–166). American Psychological Association.
  60. Schwartze, M. M., Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., Marx, A. K. G., Reck, C., Pekrun, R., and Fiedler, D. (2020). Excessive Boredom Among Adolescents: A Comparison Between Low and High Achievers. PLOS One, 15(11), e0241671. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241671
  61. Sharp, E. H., Caldwell, L. L., Graham, J. W., and Ridenour, T. A. (2006). Individual Motivation and Parental Influence on Adolescents’ Experiences of Interest in Free Time: A Longitudinal Examination. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(3), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9045-6
  62. Svendsen, L. (2005). A Philosophy of Boredom. Reaktion Books.
  63. Tam, K. Y. Y., Van Tilburg, W. A., and Chan, C. S. (2021). What Is Boredom Proneness? A Comparison of Three Characterizations. Journal of Personality, 89(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12618
  64. Thackray, R. I. (1981). The Stress of Boredom and Monotony: A Consideration of the Evidence. Psychosomatic Medicine, 43(2), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-198104000-00008
  65. Utt, K. (Producer), and Demme, J. (Director). (1991). The Silence of the Lambs [Film]. Orion Pictures.
  66. Vodanovich, S. J., and Kass, S. J. (1990). A Factor Analytic study of the Boredom Proneness Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(1–2), 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5501&2_11
  67. Vogel-Walcutt, J. J., Fiorella, L., Carper, T., and Schatz, S. (2012). The Definition, Assessment, and Mitigation of State Boredom Within Educational Settings: A Comprehensive Review. Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 89–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9182-7
  68. Watt, J. D., and Vodanovich, S. J. (1999). Boredom Proneness and Psychosocial Development. The Journal of Psychology, 133, 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223989909599743
  69. Wegner, L., and Flisher, A. J. (2009). Leisure Boredom and Adolescent Risk Behaviour: A Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 21(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.2989/jcamh.2009.21.1.4.806
  70. Westgate, E. C., and Wilson, T. D. (2018). Boring Thoughts and Bored Minds: The MAC Model of Boredom and Cognitive Engagement. Psychological Review, 125(5), 689–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000097
  71. Wilson, T. D., Reinhard, D. A., Westgate, E. C., Gilbert, D. T., Ellerbeck, N., Hahn, C., Brown, C., L., and Shaked, A. (2014). Just Think: The Challenges of the Disengaged Mind. Science, 345(6192), 75–77. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1250830
  72. Zuckerman, M. (2007). Sensation Seeking and Risky Behavior. American Psychological Association.‏